Introduction

Background

The inhabitants of Mongolia possess a rich historical background influenced by several nomadic empires, with origins tracing back to the Xiongnu in the 4th century B.C. The term Mongol can be traced to at least the 11th century A.D. The most renowned figure among the Mongols, TEMÜÜJIN (also known as Genghis Khan), rose to prominence as the leader of all Mongols in the early 1200s. By the time of his passing in 1227, he had established a vast Mongol Empire through military conquests that spanned much of Eurasia. His heirs, including ÖGÖDEI and KHUBILAI (commonly referred to as Kublai Khan), further expanded the empire into Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and throughout China, where KHUBILAI founded the Yuan Dynasty in the 1270s. The Mongols made attempts to invade Japan and Java before their empire fragmented in the 14th century. In the 17th century, Mongolia came under the domination of the Manchus from the Chinese Qing Dynasty. Following the collapse of Manchu authority in 1911, Mongolia proclaimed its independence, achieving it in 1921 with assistance from the Soviet Union. In 1924, Mongolia was established as a socialist state known as the Mongolian People’s Republic. Until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1989, Mongolia functioned as a satellite state of the Soviet Union, relying significantly on economic, military, and political support from Moscow. This era was characterized by political purges, repression, economic stagnation, and strained relations with China.

Mongolia underwent a peaceful transition to an independent democratic system in 1990. In 1992, it enacted a new constitution and transitioned to a free-market economy. Since this shift, the country has successfully held multiple presidential and legislative elections. During this time, the former communist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party -- rebranded as the Mongolian People’s Party (MPP) in 2010 -- has contended for political influence alongside the Democratic Party and various smaller factions. For the majority of its democratic tenure, Mongolia has experienced a divided government, where the presidency and the parliamentary majority were typically held by different parties; this dynamic changed in 2021 when the MPP secured the presidency after obtaining a supermajority in parliament in 2020. The June 2021 presidential election resulted in a significant triumph for MPP candidate Ukhnaagiin KHURELSUKH.

Mongolia fosters strong cultural, political, and military relationships with Russia, while China stands as its largest economic ally. The nation’s foreign diplomatic efforts are concentrated on maintaining its sovereignty by balancing its relations with both China and Russia, alongside other key partners such as Japan, South Korea, and the United States.