Introduction

Background

The contemporary nation of Mali derives its name from the Mali Empire, which governed the region from the 13th to the 16th centuries. At its zenith in the 14th century, it represented the most extensive and affluent empire in West Africa, encompassing an area approximately twice as large as that of present-day France. The empire primarily thrived on trade, amassing wealth through gold and overseeing numerous goldfields and trading routes across the Sahel. Additionally, Mali played a significant role in shaping West African culture by disseminating its language, laws, and customs; however, by the 16th century, it had fragmented into several smaller chiefdoms. The Songhai Empire, which was once a dependency of Mali centered in Timbuktu, rose to prominence during the 15th and 16th centuries. Under Songhai's governance, Timbuktu evolved into a major commercial hub, renowned for its scholarship and religious instruction. Today, Timbuktu continues to be a cultural center in West Africa. In the late 16th century, the Songhai Empire succumbed to Moroccan invaders and disintegrated into independent kingdoms and sultanates.

In the 1890s, France expanded from Senegal and took control of the region, incorporating it into French West Africa as French Sudan. The territory achieved independence from France in 1960, becoming the Mali Federation. Following Senegal's withdrawal after a brief period, the remaining territory was renamed the Republic of Mali. Mali experienced 31 years of dictatorship until 1991, when a military coup led by Amadou Toumani TOURE deposed the government, established a new constitution, and implemented a multi-party democracy. Alpha Oumar KONARE secured victory in Mali's first two democratic presidential elections in 1992 and 1997. In accordance with Mali's constitutional two-term limit, he stepped down in 2002, paving the way for Amadou Toumani TOURE, who won reelection in 2007.

In 2012, escalating ethnic tensions and an influx of fighters—some associated with Al-Qa’ida—from Libya triggered a rebellion and military coup. Following this coup, rebels ousted the military from the country's three northern regions, which enabled terrorist organizations to establish strongholds in the area. A French-led military intervention in 2013 allowed the Malian government to regain control of most of the north. Nevertheless, the government’s authority in the region remains tenuous, with local militias, insurgents, and terrorist groups vying for dominance. In 2015, a peace agreement was signed between the Malian Government and northern rebels, mediated internationally. Despite a target for implementation set for 2017, progress on the agreement has been minimal. Terrorist groups were excluded from the peace negotiations, and attacks by terrorists continue to be prevalent.

Ibrahim Boubacar KEITA emerged victorious in the Malian presidential elections of 2013 and 2018. Despite security and logistical deficiencies, international observers regarded these elections as credible. During KEITA’s second term, the country faced challenges from terrorism, banditry, ethnic violence, and extrajudicial military killings. In 2020, the military detained KEITA, his prime minister, and other high-ranking officials, establishing a military junta known as the National Committee for the Salvation of the People (CNSP). The junta went on to create a transitional government, appointing Bah N’DAW, a retired army officer and former defense minister, as interim president and Colonel Assimi GOITA, the coup leader and chairman of the CNSP, as interim vice president. The charter of the transition government permitted it to govern for up to 18 months prior to convening a general election.

In 2021, GOITA orchestrated another military coup, detaining the interim president after a Cabinet reshuffle displaced GOITA’s key associates. GOITA was inaugurated as transition president, while Choguel Kokalla MAIGA became prime minister. In 2022, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) enforced sanctions against the transition government, and member states closed their borders with Mali after the transitional administration proposed a five-year extension for the electoral timetable. Eventually, the transition government and ECOWAS agreed on a revised two-year schedule, which would have included presidential elections in February 2024. However, in September 2023, the transition government indefinitely postponed the elections and withdrew from ECOWAS in January 2024.