Introduction

Background

Historically known as Nubia, what is now Sudan was home to the Kingdom of Kerma (circa 2500-1500 B.C.) until it became part of the New Kingdom of Egypt. By the 11th century B.C., the Kingdom of Kush achieved autonomy from Egypt and persisted in various forms until the mid-4th century A.D. Following the decline of Kush, the Nubians established three Christian kingdoms: Nobatia, Makuria, and Alodia, with the latter two surviving until approximately 1500. During the 14th and 15th centuries, Arab nomadic groups settled in much of Sudan, which resulted in widespread Islamization from the 16th to the 19th centuries. After early 19th-century Egyptian occupation, a 1899 agreement created a joint British-Egyptian administration in Sudan, which essentially functioned as a British colony.

Since gaining independence from Anglo-Egyptian rule in 1956, Sudan has predominantly been governed by military regimes that support Islamic-oriented administrations. Throughout much of the latter half of the 20th century, the nation experienced two extended civil wars, primarily driven by northern control over the predominantly non-Muslim, non-Arab southern region. The first civil conflict concluded in 1972, but a subsequent war erupted in 1983. Peace negotiations gained traction between 2002 and 2004, culminating in the 2005 North/South Comprehensive Peace Agreement, which granted the southern insurgents autonomy for six years, leading to a referendum on independence for Southern Sudan. South Sudan declared its independence in 2011; however, both Sudan and South Sudan have yet to fully actualize security and economic agreements to normalize their relations. Additionally, Sudan has encountered conflicts in Darfur, Southern Kordofan, and Blue Nile, which began in 2003.

In 2019, following extensive nationwide protests, President Omar Hassan Ahmad al-BASHIR’s 30-year rule came to an end when the military deposed him. Economist and former international civil servant Abdalla HAMDOUK al-Kinani was appointed as the prime minister of a transitional government, with plans for elections in 2022. However, in late 2021, the Sudanese military removed HAMDOUK and his administration and substituted civilian members of the Sovereign Council (Sudan’s collective Head of State) with those chosen by the military. Although HAMDOUK was briefly reinstated, he resigned in January 2022. General Abd-al-Fatah al-BURHAN Abd-al-Rahman, who serves as the Chair of Sudan’s Sovereign Council and Commander-in-Chief of the Sudanese Armed Forces, currently acts as the de facto head of state and government. He oversees a Sovereign Council that includes military leaders, representatives from former armed opposition groups, and civilians appointed by the military. Day-to-day governance is managed by a cabinet of acting ministers.