Introduction

Background

Ukraine served as the nucleus of the initial eastern Slavic state, known as Kyivan Rus, which stood as the most extensive and influential state in Europe during the 10th and 11th centuries. Following a period of internal strife and invasions by the Mongols, Kyivan Rus was assimilated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The cultural and religious heritage of Kyivan Rus provided a basis for the emergence of Ukrainian nationalism. A new Ukrainian entity, the Cossack Hetmanate, was formed in the mid-17th century as a result of a rebellion against Polish control. Despite ongoing pressure from Muscovy, the Hetmanate successfully maintained its autonomy for more than a century. By the latter part of the 18th century, the Russian Empire had annexed the majority of Ukrainian territories. Following the fall of czarist Russia in 1917, Ukraine—historically referred to as the region's "bread basket" due to its fertile agricultural land—experienced a brief period of independence from 1917 to 1920. However, it was soon reconquered and fell under Soviet governance, which instigated two devastating famines (1921-22 and 1932-33) resulting in the deaths of over eight million people. During World War II, an additional seven to eight million deaths were attributed to the actions of German and Soviet forces. In 1986, a sudden surge of power during a reactor systems test at the Chernobyl power plant precipitated the worst nuclear catastrophe ever, releasing vast quantities of radioactive material. Although Ukraine voted overwhelmingly for independence in 1991 amid the dissolution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the pursuit of democracy and prosperity remained challenging, with the enduring influence of state control, patronage systems, and pervasive corruption hindering economic reforms, privatization processes, and the expansion of civil liberties.

In 2004 and 2005, widespread protests known as the "Orange Revolution" compelled the government to annul a presidential election and facilitate a new vote monitored by international observers, resulting in the election of a reform-oriented government led by Viktor YUSHCHENKO. In 2006, his rival, Viktor YANUKOVYCH, became prime minister and was later elected president in 2010. Legislative elections held in 2012 were broadly condemned as corrupt by Western observers. In 2013, YANUKOVYCH reversed his decision on a trade and cooperation agreement with the European Union in favor of strengthening economic relations with Russia, subsequently employing force against protesters who favored the agreement. This action sparked a three-month occupation of Kyiv's central square by demonstrators. The government's violent attempts to dismantle the protest encampment in 2014 resulted in numerous fatalities, international criticism, a failed political compromise, and the president's sudden flight to Russia. Pro-Western President Petro POROSHENKO assumed office later that year, followed by Volodymyr ZELENSKYY, who took over in 2019.

Shortly after YANUKOVYCH's exit in 2014, Russian President Vladimir PUTIN initiated the invasion of Ukraine's Crimean Peninsula. In retaliation, the United Nations adopted a resolution reaffirming Ukraine's sovereignty and independence. By mid-2014, Russia had commenced armed hostilities in two eastern Ukrainian provinces. Efforts by the international community to resolve the conflict proved unsuccessful, and by 2022, more than 14,000 civilians had either died or sustained injuries. On 24 February 2022, Russia intensified the conflict by launching an invasion of Ukraine on multiple fronts, marking the largest conventional military offensive against a sovereign nation in Europe since World War II. Despite initial substantial territorial gains, Russia miscalculated the determination and military capabilities of Ukraine. In spite of Ukrainian resistance, Russia has claimed four Ukrainian oblasts—Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk, and Zaporizhzhia—none of which are fully under Russian control. The international community has not acknowledged these annexations. The invasion has also resulted in Europe's most significant refugee crisis since World War II, with over six million Ukrainian refugees reported worldwide. This situation constitutes one of the two largest displacement crises globally, alongside the conflict in Syria. President ZELENSKYY has prioritized the enhancement of Ukrainian identity to unify the nation in its objectives of ending the war by reclaiming territory and advancing Ukraine's candidacy for EU membership.