Introduction

Background

South Sudan, recognized as the newest nation globally after its separation from Sudan in 2011, is inhabited by a variety of chiefly Nilotic ethnolinguistic groups that migrated to the region between the 15th and 19th centuries. The societal structure of South Sudan relies significantly on seasonal migration patterns and varying precipitation levels. The area that is now South Sudan was initially conquered by Egypt and subsequently governed by a combination of Egyptian and British colonial rulers during the late 19th century. Christian missionaries played a crucial role in disseminating the English language and Christianity throughout the region, which resulted in pronounced cultural distinctions from northern Sudan, where Arabic and Islam prevail. Upon Sudan achieving independence in 1956, the southern region was promised full participation in the political framework. Nonetheless, the Arab administration in Khartoum failed to uphold these commitments, triggering two phases of civil war (1955-1972 and 1983-2005) that resulted in approximately 2.5 million fatalities, predominantly among civilians, primarily due to famine and drought. The second Sudanese civil war was one of the most lethal conflicts since World War II, leaving the society in southern Sudan in ruins. Negotiations culminated in the US-supported Comprehensive Peace Agreement of 2005, which granted the South six years of self-governance, followed by a referendum regarding its final status. The referendum, conducted in 2011, yielded a decisive 98% vote favoring secession.

Since achieving independence, South Sudan has faced significant challenges in establishing a functional governance framework, grappling with extensive corruption, political strife, and intercommunal violence. In 2013, hostilities broke out between factions aligned with President Salva KIIR, a Dinka, and those supporting Vice President Riek MACHAR, a Nuer. The conflict escalated rapidly across the nation along ethnic lines, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths and creating a humanitarian emergency that displaced millions of South Sudanese individuals. A peace agreement was signed in 2015 by KIIR and MACHAR, leading to the formation of a Transitional Government of National Unity the following year. However, renewed clashes erupted in Juba between the factions, rekindling hostilities and involving additional armed opposition groups. A "revitalized" peace accord was established in 2018, which largely concluded the violence and set the stage for a unified national army, a transitional administration, and upcoming elections. The transitional government was officially established in 2020, with MACHAR returning to Juba as the first vice president. Since that time, the execution of the peace agreement has faced hurdles due to disputes over power-sharing, contributing to an increase in communal violence and the most severe food crisis since independence, affecting 7 out of 11 million South Sudanese citizens who require humanitarian aid. The transitional phase was prolonged by an additional two years in 2022, delaying elections until late 2024.